Large parts of what is now Turkey were already settled in the Paleolithic period, so the Neolithic period began quite early, particularly in the east of what is now Turkey.

However, it was only recently that the beginning of the Neolithic period could be assigned a specific time and thus proven through excavations such as Göbekli Tepe, Nevali Cori and Catalhöyük.

Where do the respective population groups come from?

Where the respective population groups came from and what "tribal affiliation" they belonged to is still largely unknown.

The situation only became clearer at the beginning of the third millennium BC, when the Hattians, also known as Prohattians, were clearly identified in their settlement areas in Anatolia. However, this proper name refers more to the region than to their self-designation.

The same applies to the Hurrians, who settled in northern Mesopotamia.

Hattusa, a city founded by the Hatti

The Hatti were an ethnic group from Asia Minor who lived in Anatolia before the Hittites. Today we know that Hattusa, the later capital of the Hittites, was also originally a city founded by the Hatti. However, when the Hittites took power, the Hatti were not expelled, so that mixing soon occurred.

The language was also preserved for a long time until around 1,500 BC. After that, the language was only considered a ritual language of the Hittites, in which Hatti sayings were still used in the sacred area but were hardly understood. As in later cultures, many customs and rites were adopted by the Hittites. The originally Hatti name Wurušemu for the most important goddess of the pantheon, the sun goddess of Arinna, was adopted by the Hittites, as was the originally Hatti god Telepinu. Expansion of the Hurrians due to superior weapon technology

The first settlement areas of the Hurrians were found at the end of the third millennium on the north-eastern mountain edge of Mesopotamia. However, the pressure and influence of the Sumerian-Akkadian civilizations on the Hurrians was always very pronounced, which in turn contributed to the mixing with the cultures of the Hittites. Towards the end of 1800 BC, the Hurrians expanded greatly due to superior weapon technology in the form of horse-drawn chariots, which were far superior to their opponents.

The Hurrians were thus able to carry out victorious campaigns as far as Palestine and Egypt. The military successes were accompanied by the founding of new cities, including the Hurrian city of Hazor, in the north of what is now Israel. The importance of this city quickly grew to become a metropolis, and Hazor became the largest city in Canaan around 1500 BC. A group of Semitic and Hurrian immigrants, the Hyksos, who had come into being through mixing, conquered the eastern Nile Delta between 1719 and 1692 BC and founded their capital Avaris there.

Around 1600 BC, another group founded the kingdom of Mittani, which archaeologists now suspect had its capital called Waššukanni near Tell Fecheriye in northern Syria. The kingdom of Mittani covered an area between the upper Euphrates and the Tigris. Interestingly, however, the kings of the Mittani did not have typical Hurrian throne names, as one might assume. There are a number of unanswered questions, which is why countless researchers have been involved in excavation campaigns in the region since around 2006.

Unfortunately, in the following years it was completely thwarted by the conflicts in Syria, and many facts remain hidden. Due to the destruction caused by the wars and the extremism that came with them, especially by IS, many relics and cultural assets were destroyed. Due to the expansion of the Hittites, Mittani lost its independence around 1335 BC and was subsequently destroyed after Assyrian attacks under the military leader Shalmaneser I. Despite this severe defeat, some Hurrian principalities survived for a long time.

Indo-European Hittites immigrate to Anatolia

In the second half of the third millennium BC, as already mentioned, the Indo-European Hittites immigrated to Anatolia, whose origins are also almost completely unknown.

After many small settlements by individual princes, a unification of all Hittite tribes was achieved around 1600 BC and the great empire with its capital Hattusa was founded. Why the Hittite Empire collapsed just 400 years later is still unknown. The cause is thought to be the strong expansion pressure from the Phrygians.

Only in a few small kingdoms in the southeast of what is now Turkey and in Syria were the Hittites able to maintain their primitive culture until around 600 BC.

The Luwians, who are also considered to be Indo-European ethnic groups, and the Phrygians immigrated to Anatolia almost at the same time as the Hittites. The historian Homer also writes about the Phrygians, who are said to have come from Thrace. There is little historical evidence from the early days of the settlement history of the Phrygians.

The former capital Gordion can be documented, and it flourished as early as 1200 BC.

The Phrygian Empire reached its greatest extent around the capital Gordion as far as the city of Midas around 750 BC. Just 50 years later, the fate of the Phrygians was sealed when the Cimmerians, who probably came from Russia, invaded the country.

At about the same time, the Lydian Empire was founded in western Asia Minor, whose capital, Sardis, is now a magnet for visitors to Turkey, without being as overcrowded as in Pergamon or Ephesus, which is why we would definitely recommend Sardis as a travel recommendation.

The Urartu Empire was also founded further east at the same time. However, probably due to the constant struggle with the Assyrians, this great empire could only last for two centuries.

Ionian, Aeolian and Dorian Greeks come to Asia Minor

Starting largely from Miletus, the entire coastal region of Anatolia was taken over by Ionian, Aeolian and Dorian Greeks since the middle of the second millennium, who initially formed colonies before cities could develop. This applies to the entire Aegean and Black Sea region.

The Greek settlements certainly show a mixture, and Mycenaean cultures were found on both the south and west coasts. How far the respective groups penetrated inland is still relatively unexplored. New discoveries of entire towns that were previously hidden under bushes and trees are constantly being made.

From around 700 BC, the Persians and Medes were able to conquer large parts of Lydia and with them the Greek settlements. With the conquests of Alexander the Great, many of the small areas of rule came to an end and Alexander's great empire was created.

Parallel to the aforementioned, there were local areas of rule:

- the Lukka in the 15th to 13th centuries BC in Lycia
- the Mitanni in the 15th and 14th centuries BC in northern Mesopotamia and Syria
- from Arzawa at about the same time as the Hittites in the southwest of Asia Minor
- the Aramaeans around 1200 to 1000 BC AD in northern Mesopotamia
- the Carians and Leleges around the 4th century BC in western Anatolia around Mylasa and Labranda
- the Lycians 400 to 300 BC (see Lycian League)
- the Parthians from 200 BC to 200 AD in the northeast and in what is now Armenia
- from Commagene from 163 BC to around the birth of Christ in eastern central Anatolia

Please read as well:

Delphi - the sanctuary of Athena Pronaia

The Phrygians - the origin of the people was in Thrace